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  The Geologic History of the Mediterranean

  In 1970 geologists Kenneth J. Hsu and William B.F. Ryan were collecting research data while aboard the oceanographic research vessel Glomar Challenger. An objective of this particular cruise was to investigate the floor of the Mediterranean and to resolve questions about its geologic history. One question was related to evidence that the invertebrate fauna (animals without spines) of the Mediterranean had changed abruptly about 6 million years ago. Most of the older organisms were nearly wiped out, although a few hardy species survived. A few managed to migrate into the Atlantic. Somewhat later, the migrants returned, bringing new species with them. Why did the near extinction and migrations occur?

  Another task for the Glomar Challenger’s scientists was to try to determine the origin of the domelike masses buried deep beneath the Mediterranean seafloor. These structures had been detected years earlier by echo-sounding instruments, but they had never been penetrated in the course of drilling. Were they salt domes such as are common along the United States Gulf Coast, and if so, why should there have been so much solid crystalline salt beneath the floor of the Mediterranean?

  With question such as these clearly before them, the scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger processed to the Mediterranean to search for the answers. On August 23, 1970, they recovered a sample. The sample consisted of pebbles of hardened sediment that had once been soft, deep-sea mud, as well as granules of gypsum and fragments of volcanic rock. Not a single pebble was found that might have indicated that the pebbles came from the nearby continent. In the days following, samples of solid gypsum were repeatedly brought on deck as drilling operations penetrated the seafloor. Furthermore, the gypsum was found to possess peculiarities of composition and structure that suggested it had formed on desert flats. Sediment above and below the gypsum layer contained tiny marine fossils, indicating open-ocean conditions. As they drilled into the central and deepest part of the Mediterranean basin, the scientists took solid, shiny, crystalline salt from the core barrel. Interbedded with the salt were thin layers of what appeared to be windblown silt.

  The time had come to formulate a hypothesis. The investigators theorized that about 20 million years ago, the Mediterranean was a broad seaway linked to the Atlantic by two narrow straits. Crustal movements closed the straits, and the landlocked Mediterranean began to evaporate. Increasing salinity caused by the evaporation resulted in the extermination of scores of invertebrate species. Only a few organisms especially tolerant of very salty conditions remained. As evaporation continued, the remaining brine (salt water) became so dense that the calcium sulfate of the hard layer was precipitated. In the central deeper part of the basin, the last of the brine evaporated to precipitate more soluble sodium chloride (salt). Later, under the weight of overlying sediments, this salt flowed plastically upward to form salt domes. Before this happened, however, the Mediterranean was a vast desert 3,000 meters deep. Then, about 5.5 million years ago came the deluge. As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting, the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean now connects to the Atlantic, opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean. Turbulent waters tore into the hardened salt flats, broke them up, and ground them into the pebbles observed in the first sample taken by the Challenger. As the basin was refilled, normal marine organisms returned. Soon layer of oceanic ooze began to accumulate above the old hard layer.

  The salt and gypsum, the faunal changes, and the unusual gravel provided abundant evidence that the Mediterranean was once a desert.

  gypsum: a mineral made of calcium sulfate and water

  Paragraph 1: In 1970 geologists Kenneth J. Hsu and William B.F. Ryan were collecting research data while aboard the oceanographic research vessel Glomar Challenger. An objective of this particular cruise was to investigate the floor of the Mediterranean and to resolve questions about its geologic history. One question was related to evidence that the invertebrate fauna (animals without spines) of the Mediterranean had changed abruptly about 6 million years ago. Most of the older organisms were nearly wiped out, although a few hardy species survived. A few managed to migrate into the Atlantic. Somewhat later, the migrants returned, bringing new species with them. Why did the near extinction and migrations occur?

  1.The word “objective” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○achievement

  ○requirement

  ○purpose

  ○feature

  2.Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 1 as a change that occurred in the fauna of the Mediterranean?

  ○Most invertebrate species disappeared during a wave of extinctions.

  ○A few hardy species wiped out many of the Mediterranean’s invertebrates.

  ○Some invertebrates migrated to Atlantic Ocean.

  ○New species of fauna populated the Mediterranean when the old migrants returned.

  Paragraph 3: With question such as these clearly before them, the scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger processed to the Mediterranean to search for the answers. On August 23, 1970, they recovered a sample. The sample consisted of pebbles of hardened sediment that had once been soft, deep-sea mud, as well as granules of gypsum and fragments of volcanic rock. Not a single pebble was found that might have indicated that the pebbles came from the nearby continent. In the days following, samples of solid gypsum were repeatedly brought on deck as drilling operations penetrated the seafloor. Furthermore, the gypsum was found to possess peculiarities of composition and structure that suggested it had formed on desert flats. Sediment above and below the gypsum layer contained tiny marine fossils, indicating open-ocean conditions. As they drilled into the central and deepest part of the Mediterranean basin, the scientists took solid, shiny, crystalline salt from the core barrel. Interbedded with the salt were thin layers of what appeared to be windblown silt.

  3.What does the author imply by saying “Not a single pebble was found that might have indicated that the

  pebbles came from the nearby continent”?

  ○The most obvious explanation for the origin of the pebbles was not supported by the evidence.

  ○The geologists did not find as many pebbles as they expected.

  ○The geologists were looking for a particular kind of pebble.

  ○The different pebbles could not have come from only one source.

  4.Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 3 about the solid gypsum layer?

  ○It did not contain any marine fossil.

  ○It had formed in open-ocean conditions.

  ○It had once been soft, deep-sea mud.

  ○It contained sediment from nearby deserts.

  5. Select the TWO answer choice from paragraph 3 that identify materials discovered in the deepest part of the Mediterranean basin. To receive credit you must select TWO answers.

  ○Volcanic rock fragments.

  ○Thin silt layers

  ○Soft, deep-sea mud

  ○Crystalline salt

  6. What is the main purpose of paragraph 3?

  ○To describe the physical evidence collected by Hsu and Ryan

  ○To explain why some of the questions posed earlier in the passage could not be answered by the findings of the Glomar Challenger

  ○To evaluate techniques used by Hsu and Ryan to explore the sea floor

  ○To describe the most difficult problems faced by the Glomar Challenger expedition

  Paragraph 4: The time had come to formulate a hypothesis. The investigators theorized that about 20 million years ago, the Mediterranean was a broad seaway linked to the Atlantic by two narrow straits. Crustal movements closed the straits, and the landlocked Mediterranean began to evaporate. Increasing salinity caused by the evaporation resulted in the extermination of scores of invertebrate species. Only a few organisms especially tolerant of very salty conditions remained. As evaporation continued, the remaining brine (salt water) became so dense that the calcium sulfate of the hard layer was precipitated. In the central deeper part of the basin, the last of the brine evaporated to precipitate more soluble sodium chloride (salt). Later, under the weight of overlying sediments, this salt flowed plastically upward to form salt domes. Before this happened, however, the Mediterranean was a vast desert 3,000 meters deep. Then, about 5.5 million years ago came the deluge. As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting, the Strait of Gibraltar, where the Mediterranean now connects to the Atlantic, opened, and water cascaded spectacularly back into the Mediterranean. Turbulent waters tore into the hardened salt flats, broke them up, and ground them into the pebbles observed in the first sample taken by the Challenger. As the basin was refilled, normal marine organisms returned. Soon layer of oceanic ooze began to accumulate above the old hard layer.

  7. According to paragraph 4, which of the following was responsible for the evaporation of the Mediterranean’s waters?

  ○The movements of Earth’s crust

  ○The accumulation of sediment layers

  ○Changes in the water level of the Atlantic Ocean

  ○Changes in Earth’s temperature

  8. The word “scores” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○members

  ○large numbers

  ○populations

  ○different types

  9. According to paragraph 4, what caused most invertebrate species in the Mediterranean to become extinct?

  ○The evaporation of chemicals necessary for their survival

  ○Crustal movements that connected the Mediterranean to the saltier Atlantic

  ○The migration of new species through the narrow straits

  ○Their inability to tolerate the increasing salt content of the Mediterranean

  10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  ○The strait of Gibraltar reopened when the Mediterranean and the Atlantic became connected and the cascades of water from one sea to the other caused crustal adjustments and faulting.

  ○The Mediterranean was dramatically refilled by water from the Atlantic when crustal adjustments and faulting opened the Strait of Gibraltar, the place where the two seas are joined.

  ○The cascades of water from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean were not as spectacular as the crustal adjustments and faulting that occurred when the Strait of Gibraltar was connected to those seas.

  ○As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting and the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar, the Atlantic and Mediterranean were connected and became a single sea with spectacular cascades of water between them.

  11. The word “Turbulent” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○Fresh

  ○Deep

  ○Violent

  ○Temperate

  Paragraph 2 ■Another task for the Glomar Challenger’s scientists was to try to determine the origin of the domelike masses buried deep beneath the Mediterranean seafloor. ■These structures had been detected years earlier by echo-sounding instruments, but they had never been penetrated in the course of drilling. ■Were they salt domes such as are common along the United States Gulf Coast, and if so, why should there have been so much solid crystalline salt beneath the floor of the Mediterranean? ■

  12. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  Thus, scientists had information about the shape of the domes but not about their chemical composition and origin.

  Where would the sentence best fit?

  13.Direction: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  An expedition to the Mediterranean answered some long-standing questions about the ocean’s history.

  ●

  ●

  ●

  Answer choices

  ○The Glomar Challenger expedition investigated changes in invertebrate fauna and some unusual geologic features.

  ○Researchers collected fossils to determine which new species migrated from the Atlantic with older species.

  ○Scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger were the first to discover the existence of domelike masses underneath the seafloor.

  ○Samples recovered from the expedition revealed important differences in chemical composition and fossil distribution among the sediment layers.

  ○Evidence collected by the Glomar Challenger supports geologists' beliefs that the Mediterranean had evaporated and become a desert, before it refilled with water.

  ○Mediterranean salt domes formed after crustal movements opened the straits between the Mediterranean and the Atlantic, and the Mediterranean refilled with water.

  参考答案：

  1.○ 3

  2.○ 2

  3.○ 1

  4.○ 1

  5.○ 2, 4

  6.○ 1

  7.○ 1

  8○ 2

  9.○ 4

  10.○ 2

  11.○ 3

  12.○ 3

  13. The Glomar Challenger…

  Samples recovered from…

  Evidence collected by…

  Ancient Rome and Greece

  There is a quality of cohesiveness about the Roman world that applied neither to Greece nor perhaps to any other civilization, ancient or modern. Like the stone of Roman wall, which were held together both by the regularity of the design and by that peculiarly powerful Roman cement, so the various parts of the Roman realm were bonded into a massive, monolithic entity by physical, organizational, and psychological controls. The physical bonds included the network of military garrisons, which were stationed in every province, and the network of stone-built roads that linked the provinces with Rome. The organizational bonds were based on the common principles of law and administration and on the universal army of officials who enforced common standards of conduct. The psychological controls were built on fear and punishment—on the absolute certainty that anyone or anything that threatened the authority of Rome would be utterly destroyed.

  The source of Roman obsession with unity and cohesion may well have lain in the pattern of Rome’s early development. Whereas Greece had grown from scores of scattered cities, Rome grew from one single organism. While the Greek world had expanded along the Mediterranean seas lanes, the Roman world was assembled by territorial conquest. Of course, the contrast is not quite so stark: in Alexander the Great the Greeks had found the greatest territorial conqueror of all time; and the Romans, once they moved outside Italy, did not fail to learn the lessons of sea power. Yet the essential difference is undeniable. The key to the Greek world lay in its high-powered ships; the key to Roman power lay in its marching legions. The Greeks were wedded to the sea; the Romans, to the land. The Greek was a sailor at heart; the Roman, a landsman.

  Certainly, in trying to explain the Roman phenomenon, one would have to place great emphasis on this almost instinct for the territorial imperative. Roman priorities lay in the organization, exploitation, and defense of their territory. In all probability it was the fertile plain of Latium, where the Latins who founded Rome originated, that created the habits and skills of landed settlement, landed property, landed economy, landed administration, and a land-based society. From this arose the Roman genius for military organization and orderly government. In turn, a deep attachment to the land, and to the stability which rural life engenders, fostered the Roman virtues: gravitas, a sense of responsibility, peitas, a sense of devotion to family and country, and iustitia, a sense of the natural order.

  Modern attitudes to Roman civilization range from the infinitely impressed to the thoroughly disgusted. As always, there are the power worshippers, especially among historians, who are predisposed to admire whatever is strong, who feel more attracted to the might of Rome than to the subtlety of Greece. At the same time, there is a solid body of opinion that dislikes Rome. For many, Rome is at best the imitator and the continuator of Greece on a larger scale. Greek civilization had quality; Rome, mere quantity. Greece was original; Rome, derivative. Greece had style; Rome had money. Greece was the inventor; Rome, the research and development division. Such indeed was the opinion of some of the more intellectual Romans. “Had the Greeks held novelty in such disdain as we,” asked Horace in his epistle, “what work of ancient date would now exist?”

  Rome’s debt to Greece was enormous. The Romans adopted Greek religion and moral philosophy. In literature, Greek writers were consciously used as models by their Latin successors. It was absolutely accepted that an educated Roman should be fluent in Greek. In speculative philosophy and the sciences, the Romans made virtually no advance on early achievements.

  Yet it would be wrong to suggest that Rome was somehow a junior partner in Greco-Roman civilization. The Roman genius was projected into new spheres—especially into those of law, military organization, administration, and engineering. Moreover, the tensions that arose within the Roman state produced literary and artistic sensibilities of the highest order. It was no accident that many leading Roman soldiers and statesmen were writers of high caliber.

  Paragraph 1: There is a quality of cohesiveness about the Roman world that applied neither to Greece nor perhaps to any other civilization, ancient or modern. Like the stone of Roman wall, which were held together both by the regularity of the design and by that peculiarly powerful Roman cement, so the various parts of the Roman realm were bonded into a massive, monolithic entity by physical, organizational, and psychological controls. The physical bonds included the network of military garrisons, which were stationed in every province, and the network of stone-built roads that linked the provinces with Rome. The organizational bonds were based on the common principles of law and administration and on the universal army of officials who enforced common standards of conduct. The psychological controls were built on fear and punishment—on the absolute certainty that anyone or anything that threatened the authority of Rome would be utterly destroyed.

  1. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  ○The regularity and power of stone walls inspired Romans attempting to unify the parts of their realm.

  ○Although the Romans used different types of designs when building their walls, they used regular controls to maintain their realm.

  ○Several types of control united the Roman realm, just as design and cement held Roman walls together.

  ○Romans built walls to unite the various parts of their realm into a single entity, which was controlled by powerful laws.

  2. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are controls that held together the Roman world EXCEPT

  ○administrative and legal systems

  ○the presence of the military

  ○a common language

  ○transportation networks

  Paragraph 2: The source of Roman obsession with unity and cohesion may well have lain in the pattern of Rome’s early development. Whereas Greece had grown from scores of scattered cities, Rome grew from one single organism. While the Greek world had expanded along the Mediterranean seas lanes, the Roman world was assembled by territorial conquest. Of course, the contrast is not quite so stark: in Alexander the Great the Greeks had found the greatest territorial conqueror of all time; and the Romans, once they moved outside Italy, did not fail to learn the lessons of sea power. Yet the essential difference is undeniable. The key to the Greek world lay in its high-powered ships; the key to Roman power lay in its marching legions. The Greeks were wedded to the sea; the Romans, to the land. The Greek was a sailor at heart; the Roman, a landsman.

  3. The phrase “obsession with” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○thinking about

  ○fixation on

  ○interest in

  ○attitude toward

  4. According to paragraph 2, which of the following was NOT characteristic of Rome’s early development?

  ○Expansion by sea invasion

  ○Territorial expansion

  ○Expansion from one original settlement

  ○Expansion through invading armies

  5. Why does the author mention “Alexander the Great” in the passage?

  ○To acknowledge that Greek civilization also expanded by land conquest

  ○To compare Greek leaders to Roman leaders

  ○To give an example of Greek leader whom Romans studied

  ○To indicate the superior organization of the Greek military

  Paragraph 3: Certainly, in trying to explain the Roman phenomenon, one would have to place great emphasis on this almost instinct for the territorial imperative. Roman priorities lay in the organization, exploitation, and defense of their territory. In all probability it was the fertile plain of Latium, where the Latins who founded Rome originated, that created the habits and skills of landed settlement, landed property, landed economy, landed administration, and a land-based society. From this arose the Roman genius for military organization and orderly government. In turn, a deep attachment to the land, and to the stability which rural life engenders, fostered the Roman virtues: gravitas, a sense of responsibility, peitas, a sense of devotion to family and country, and iustitia, a sense of the natural order.

  6. The word “fostered” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○accepted

  ○combined

  ○introduced

  ○encouraged

  7. Paragraph 3 suggests which of the following about the people of Latium?

  ○Their economy was based on trade relations with other settlements.

  ○They held different values than the people of Rome.

  ○Agriculture played a significant role in the society.

  ○They possessed unusual knowledge of animal instincts.

  Paragraph 4: Modern attitudes to Roman civilization range from the infinitely impressed to the thoroughly disgusted. As always, there are the power worshippers, especially among historians, who are predisposed to admire whatever is strong, who feel more attracted to the might of Rome than to the subtlety of Greece. At the same time, there is a solid body of opinion that dislikes Rome. For many, Rome is at best the imitator and the continuator of Greece on a larger scale. Greek civilization had quality; Rome, mere quantity. Greece was original; Rome, derivative. Greece had style; Rome had money. Greece was the inventor; Rome, the research and development division. Such indeed was the opinion of some of the more intellectual Romans. “Had the Greeks held novelty in such disdain as we,” asked Horace in his epistle, “what work of ancient date would now exist?”

  8. Paragraph 4 indicates that some historians admire Roman civilization because of

  ○the diversity of cultures within Roman society

  ○its strength

  ○its innovative nature

  ○the large body of literature that it developed

  9. In paragraph 4, the author develops a description of Roman civilization by

  ○comparing the opinions of Roman intellectuals to Greek intellectuals

  ○identifying which characteristics of Roman civilization were copied from Greece

  ○explaining how the differences between Roman and Greece developed as time passed

  ○contrasting characteristics of Roman civilization with characteristics of Greek civilization

  10. According to paragraph 4, intellectual Romans such as Horace held which of the following opinions about their civilization?

  ○Ancient works of Greece held little value in the Roman world.

  ○The Greek civilization had been surpassed by the Romans.

  ○Roman civilization produced little that was original or memorable.

  ○Romans valued certain types of innovations that had been ignored by ancient Greeks.

  Paragraph 5: Rome’s debt to Greece was enormous. The Romans adopted Greek religion and moral philosophy. In literature, Greek writers were consciously used as models by their Latin successors. It was absolutely accepted that an educated Roman should be fluent in Greek. In speculative philosophy and the sciences, the Romans made virtually no advance on early achievements.

  Paragraph 6: Yet it would be wrong to suggest that Rome was somehow a junior partner in Greco-Roman civilization. The Roman genius was projected into new spheres—especially into those of law, military organization, administration, and engineering. Moreover, the tensions that arose within the Roman state produced literary and artistic sensibilities of the highest order. It was no accident that many leading Roman soldiers and statesmen were writers of high caliber.

  11. The word “spheres” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○abilities

  ○areas

  ○combinations

  ○models

  12. Which of the following statements about leading Roman soldiers and statesmen is supported by paragraphs 5 and 6?

  ○They could read and write the Greek language.

  ○They frequently wrote poetry and plays.

  ○They focused their writing on military matters.

  ○They wrote according to the philosophical laws of the Greeks.

  Paragraph 4: Modern attitudes to Roman civilization range from the infinitely impressed to the thoroughly disgusted. ■As always, there are the power worshippers, especially among historians, who are predisposed to admire whatever is strong, who feel more attracted to the might of Rome than to the subtlety of Greece. ■At the same time, there is a solid body of opinion that dislikes Rome. ■For many, Rome is at best the imitator and the continuator of Greece on a larger scale. ■Greek civilization had quality; Rome, mere quantity. Greece was original; Rome, derivative. Greece had style; Rome had money. Greece was the inventor; Rome, the research and development division. Such indeed was the opinion of some of the more intellectual Romans. “Had the Greeks held novelty in such disdain as we,” asked Horace in his epistle, “what work of ancient date would now exist?”

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  They esteem symbols of Roman power, such as the massive Colosseum.

  Where would the sentence best fit?

  14. Direction: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question worth 2 points.

  The Roman world drew its strength from several important sources.

  ●

  ●

  ●

  Answer choices

  ○Numerous controls imposed by Roman rulers held its territory together.

  ○The Roman military was organized differently from older military organizations.

  ○Romans valued sea power as did the Latins, the original inhabitants of Rome.

  ○Roman values were rooted in a strong attachment to the land and the stability of rural life.

  ○Rome combined aspects of ancient Greek civilization with its own contributions in new areas.

  ○Educated Romans modeled their own literature and philosophy on the ancient Greeks.

  参考答案：

  1. ○ 3

  2. ○ 3

  3. ○ 2

  4. ○ 1

  5. ○ 1

  6. ○ 4

  7. ○ 3

  8.○ 2

  9. ○ 4

  10.○ 3

  11. ○ 2

  12. ○ 1

  13. ○ 2

  14. Numerous controls imposed…

  Roman values were rooted…

  Rome combined aspects of…

  Agriculture, Iron, and the Bantu Peoples

  There is evidence of agriculture in Africa prior to 3000 B.C. It may have developed independently, but many scholars believe that the spread of agriculture and iron throughout Africa linked it to the major centers of the Near East and Mediterranean world. The drying up of what is now the Sahara desert had pushed many peoples to the south into sub-Sahara Africa. These peoples settled at first in scattered hunting-and-gathering bands, although in some places near lakes and rivers, people who fished, with a more secure food supply, lived in larger population concentrations. Agriculture seems to have reached these people from the Near East, since the first domesticated crops were millets and sorghums whose origins are not African but west Asian. Once the idea of planting diffused, Africans began to develop their own crops, such as certain varieties of rice, and they demonstrated a continued receptiveness to new imports. The proposed areas of the domestication of African crops lie in a band that extends from Ethiopia across southern Sudan to West Africa. Subsequently, other crops, such as bananas, were introduced from Southeast Asia.

  Livestock also came from outside Africa. Cattle were introduced from Asia, as probably were domestic sheep and goats. Horses were apparently introduced by the Hyksos invaders of Egypt (1780-1560 B.C.) and then spread across the Sudan to West Africa. Rock paintings in the Sahara indicate that horses and chariots were used to traverse the desert and that by 300-200 B.C., there were trade routes across the Sahara. Horses were adopted by peoples of the West African savannah, and later their powerful cavalry forces allowed them to carve out large empires. Finally, the camel was introduced around the first century A.D. This was an important innovation, because the camel’s abilities to thrive in harsh desert conditions and to carry large loads cheaply made it an effective and efficient means of transportation. The camel transformed the desert from a barrier into a still difficult, but more accessible, route of trade and communication.

  Iron came from West Asia, although its routes of diffusion were somewhat different than those of agriculture. Most of Africa presents a curious case in which societies moved directly from a technology of stone to iron without passing through the intermediate stage of copper or bronze metallurgy, although some early copper-working sites have been found in West Africa. Knowledge of iron making penetrated into the forest and savannahs of West Africa at roughly the same time that iron making was reaching Europe. Evidence of iron making has been found in Nigeria, Ghana, and Mali.

  This technological shift cause profound changes in the complexity of African societies. Iron represented power. In West Africa the blacksmith who made tools and weapons had an important place in society, often with special religious powers and functions. Iron hoes, which made the land more productive, and iron weapons, which made the warrior more powerful, had symbolic meaning in a number of West Africa societies. Those who knew the secrets of making iron gained ritual and sometimes political power.

  Unlike in the Americas, where metallurgy was a very late and limited development, Africans had iron from a relatively early date, developing ingenious furnaces to produce the high heat needed for production and to control the amount of air that reached the carbon and iron ore necessary for making iron. Much of Africa moved right into the Iron Age, taking the basic technology and adapting it to local conditions and resources.

  The diffusion of agriculture and later of iron was accompanied by a great movement of people who may have carried these innovations. These people probably originated in eastern Nigeria. Their migration may have been set in motion by an increase in population caused by a movement of peoples fleeing the desiccation, or drying up, of the Sahara. They spoke a language, proto-Bantu (“Bantu” means “the people”), which is the parent tongue of a language of a large number of Bantu languages still spoken throughout sub-Sahara Africa. Why and how these people spread out into central and southern Africa remains a mystery, but archaeologists believe that their iron weapons allowed them to conquer their hunting-gathering opponents, who still used stone implements. Still, the process is uncertain, and peaceful migration—or simply rapid demographic growth—may have also caused the Bantu explosion.

  Paragraph 1: There is evidence of agriculture in Africa prior to 3000 B.C. It may have developed independently, but many scholars believe that the spread of agriculture and iron throughout Africa linked it to the major centers of the Near East and Mediterranean world. The drying up of what is now the Sahara desert had pushed many peoples to the south into sub-Sahara Africa. These peoples settled at first in scattered hunting-and-gathering bands, although in some places near lakes and rivers, people who fished, with a more secure food supply, lived in larger population concentrations. Agriculture seems to have reached these people from the Near East, since the first domesticated crops were millets and sorghums whose origins are not African but west Asian. Once the idea of planting diffused, Africans began to develop their own crops, such as certain varieties of rice, and they demonstrated a continued receptiveness to new imports. The proposed areas of the domestication of African crops lie in a band that extends from Ethiopia across southern Sudan to West Africa. Subsequently, other crops, such as bananas, were introduced from Southeast Asia.

  1. The word “diffused” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○emerged

  ○was understood

  ○spread

  ○developed

  2. According to paragraph 1, why do researchers doubt that agriculture developed independently in Africa?

  ○African lakes and rivers already provided enough food for people to survive without agriculture.

  ○The earliest examples of cultivated plants discovered in Africa are native to Asia.

  ○Africa’s native plants are very difficult to domesticate.

  ○African communities were not large enough to support agriculture.

  3. In paragraph 1, what does the author imply about changes in the African environment during this time period?

  ○The climate was becoming milder, allowing for a greater variety of crops to be grown.

  ○Although periods of drying forced people south, they returned once their food supply was secure.

  ○Population growth along rivers and lakes was dramatically decreasing the availability of fish.

  ○A region that had once supported many people was becoming a desert where few could survive.

  Paragraph 2: Livestock also came from outside Africa. Cattle were introduced from Asia, as probably were domestic sheep and goats. Horses were apparently introduced by the Hyksos invaders of Egypt (1780-1560 B.C.) and then spread across the Sudan to West Africa. Rock paintings in the Sahara indicate that horses and chariots were used to traverse the desert and that by 300-200 B.C., there were trade routes across the Sahara. Horses were adopted by peoples of the West African savannah, and later their powerful cavalry forces allowed them to carve out large empires. Finally, the camel was introduced around the first century A.D. This was an important innovation, because the camel’s abilities to thrive in harsh desert conditions and to carry large loads cheaply made it an effective and efficient means of transportation. The camel transformed the desert from a barrier into a still difficult, but more accessible, route of trade and communication.

  4. According to paragraph 2, camels were important because they

  ○were the first domesticated animal to be introduced to Africa

  ○allowed the people of the West African savannahs to carve out large empires

  ○helped African peoples defend themselves against Egyptian invaders

  ○made it cheaper and easier to cross the Sahara

  5. According to paragraph 2, which of the following were subjects of rock paintings in the Sahara?

  ○Horses and chariots

  ○Sheep and goats

  ○Hyksos invaders from Egypt

  ○Camels and cattle

  Paragraph 3: Iron came from West Asia, although its routes of diffusion were somewhat different than those of agriculture. Most of Africa presents a curious case in which societies moved directly from a technology of stone to iron without passing through the intermediate stage of copper or bronze metallurgy, although some early copper-working sites have been found in West Africa. Knowledge of iron making penetrated into the forest and savannahs of West Africa at roughly the same time that iron making was reaching Europe. Evidence of iron making has been found in Nigeria, Ghana, and Mali.

  6. What function does paragraph 3 serve in the organization of the passage as a whole?

  ○It contrasts the development of iron technology in West Asia and West Africa.

  ○It discusses a non-agricultural contribution to Africa from Asia.

  ○It introduces evidence that a knowledge of copper working reached Africa and Europe at the same time.

  ○It compares the rates at which iron technology developed in different parts of Africa.

  Paragraph 4: This technological shift cause profound changes in the complexity of African societies. Iron represented power. In West Africa the blacksmith who made tools and weapons had an important place in society, often with special religious powers and functions. Iron hoes, which made the land more productive, and iron weapons, which made the warrior more powerful, had symbolic meaning in a number of West Africa societies. Those who knew the secrets of making iron gained ritual and sometimes political power.来源：北京新航道托福培训

  7. The word “profound” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○fascinating

  ○far-reaching

  ○necessary

  ○temporary

  8. The word “ritual” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○military

  ○physical

  ○ceremonial

  ○permanent

  9. According to paragraph 4, all of the following were social effects of the new metal technology in Africa EXCEPT:

  ○Access to metal tools and weapons created greater social equality.

  ○Metal weapons increased the power of warriors.

  ○Iron tools helped increase the food supply.

  ○Technical knowledge gave religious power to its holders.

  Paragraph 5: Unlike in the Americas, where metallurgy was a very late and limited development, Africans had iron from a relatively early date, developing ingenious furnaces to produce the high heat needed for production and to control the amount of air that reached the carbon and iron ore necessary for making iron. Much of Africa moved right into the Iron Age, taking the basic technology and adapting it to local conditions and resources.

  10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  ○While American iron makers developed the latest furnaces, African iron makers continued using earlier techniques.

  ○Africans produced iron much earlier than Americans, inventing technologically sophisticated heating systems.

  ○Iron making developed earlier in Africa than in the Americas because of the ready availability of carbon and iron ore.

  ○Both Africa and the Americas developed the capacity for making iron early, but African metallurgy developed at a slower rate.

  Paragraph 6: The diffusion of agriculture and later of iron was accompanied by a great movement of people who may have carried these innovations. These people probably originated in eastern Nigeria. Their migration may have been set in motion by an increase in population caused by a movement of peoples fleeing the desiccation, or drying up, of the Sahara. They spoke a language, proto-Bantu (“Bantu” means “the people”), which is the parent tongue of a language of a large number of Bantu languages still spoken throughout sub-Sahara Africa. Why and how these people spread out into central and southern Africa remains a mystery, but archaeologists believe that their iron weapons allowed them to conquer their hunting-gathering opponents, who still used stone implements. Still, the process is uncertain, and peaceful migration—or simply rapid demographic growth—may have also caused the Bantu explosion.

  11. The word “fleeing” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  ○afraid of

  ○displaced by

  ○running away from

  ○responding to

  12. Paragraph 6 mentions all of the following as possible causes of the “Bantu explosion” EXCEPT

  ○superior weapons

  ○better hunting skills

  ○peaceful migration

  ○increased population

  Paragraph 6: The diffusion of agriculture and later of iron was accompanied by a great movement of people who may have carried these innovations. These people probably originated in eastern Nigeria. ■Their migration may have been set in motion by an increase in population caused by a movement of peoples fleeing the desiccation, or drying up, of the Sahara. ■They spoke a language, proto-Bantu (“Bantu” means “the people”), which is the parent tongue of a language of a large number of Bantu languages still spoken throughout sub-Sahara Africa. Why and how these people spread out into central and southern Africa remains a mystery, but archaeologists believe that their iron weapons allowed them to conquer their hunting-gathering opponents, who still used stone implements. ■Still, the process is uncertain, and peaceful migration—or simply rapid demographic growth—may have also caused the Bantu explosion. ■

  13. Look at the four squares ■ that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  These people had a significant linguistic impact on the continent as well.

  Where would the sentence best fit?

  14. Direction: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  Agriculture and iron working probably spread to Africa from neighboring regions.

  ●

  ●

  ●

  Answer choices

  ○Once Africans developed their own crops, they no longer borrowed from other regions.

  ○The harshness of the African climate meant that agriculture could not develop until after the introduction of iron tools.

  ○The use of livestock improved transportation and trade and allowed for new forms of political control.

  ○As the Sahara expanded, the camel gained in importance, eventually coming to have religious significance.

  ○The spread of iron working had far-reaching effects on social, economic, and political organization in Africa.

  ○Today's Bantu-speaking peoples are descended from a technologically advanced people who spread throughout Africa.

  参考答案：

  1. ○3

  2. ○2

  3. ○4

  4. ○4

  5. ○1

  6. ○2

  7. ○2

  8.○3

  9. ○1

  10. ○2

  11. ○3

  12. ○2

  13. ○2

  14. The use of livestock improved…

  The spread of iron working…

  Today's Bantu-speaking peoples…

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