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  Plant Colonization

  Colonization is one way in which plants canchange the ecology of a site. Colonization is aprocess with two components: invasion andsurvival. The rate at which a site is colonized byplants depends on both the rate at which individualorganisms (seeds, spores, immature or mature individuals) arrive at the site and their successat becoming established and surviving. Success in colonization depends to a great extent onthere being a site available for colonization—a safe site where disturbance by fire or bycutting down of trees has either removed competing species or reduced levels of competitionand other negative interactions to a level at which the invading species can becomeestablished. For a given rate of invasion, colonization of a moist, fertile site is likely to bemuch more rapid than that of a dry, infertile site because of poor survival on the latter. Afertile, plowed field is rapidly invaded by a large variety of weeds, whereas a neighboringconstruction site from which the soil has beencompacted or removed to expose a coarse,infertile parent material may remain virtually free of vegetation for many months or even yearsdespite receiving the same input of seeds as the plowed field.

  殖民化是植物能够改变一个地方生态的一种方法。这是一个由两部分组成的过程：入侵和生存。一个地方被植物殖民的比率是取决于两个东西的速率：生物体 (种子，孢子，成熟或不成熟的个体) 到达这个区域和它们能成功地立足和生存。成功的殖民化取决于有一个非常适合定居的场所——所谓安全的地方就是，火灾和砍伐的干扰已经赶走了竞争物种或已经减小了竞争力和对入侵物种要立足产生的阻力。对于入侵速率，迁居到一个潮湿肥沃的地方会比到一个干的，不肥沃的地方更快，因为在后者更难存活。一个肥沃，翻耕的领域会迅速地被大量多样的野草侵入，然而一个邻近的建筑区，为了曝光一个粗糙不肥沃的，并且几乎可能是多月或多年都没有植被覆盖的母质层，它的土壤已经是被压实或是移动，尽管是收到了如在翻耕区域相同的种子投入。

  Both the rate of invasion and the rate of extinction vary greatly among different plantspecies. Pioneer species—those that occur only in the earliest stages of colonization—tend tohave high rates of invasion because they produce very large numbers of reproductivepropagules (seeds, spores, and so on) and because they have an efficient means of dispersal(normally, wind).

  在不同的植物种类中，入侵率和灭绝率有很大的差别。先驱物种——只出现在殖民的最初阶段——它们能高效的入侵，因为它们可以产生大量的生殖繁殖体 (像是种子，孢子之类) 并且它们有一种高效的传播方式 (正常情况下，是风) 。

  If colonizers produce short-lived reproductive propagules, then they must produce verylarge numbers unless they have an efficient means of dispersal to suitable new habitats. Manyplants depend on wind for dispersal and produce abundant quantities of small, relativelyshort-lived seeds to compensate for the fact that wind is not always a reliable means ofreaching the appropriate type of habitat. Alternative strategies have evolved in some plants,such as those that produce fewer but larger seeds that are dispersed to suitable sites bybirds or small mammals or those that produce long-lived seeds. Many forest plants seem toexhibit the latter adaptation, and viable seeds of pioneer species can be found in largenumbers on some forest floors. For example, as many as 1,125 viable seeds per square meterwere found in a 100-year-old Douglas fir/western hemlock forest in coastal British Columbia.Nearly all the seeds that had germinated from this seed bank were from pioneer species. Therapid colonization ofsuch sites after disturbance is undoubtedly in part a reflection of thelarge seed bank on the forest floor.

  如果殖民植物产出的是寿命较短的生命繁殖体，之后它们就必须繁殖很大的数量，除非它们有一种高效的传播方式去适应新的栖息地。很多植物依靠风去传播并且产生大量的小且寿命相对较短的种子来抵消这样一种风并不总是能可靠地到达一个适合的栖息地的事实。一些植物已经发展了可供选择的策略，像那些能生产出通过鸟或小型哺乳动物带到合适栖息地的较小却更大的种子的植物，或是能生产出存活得更久的种子的植物。很多的森林植物偏于选择第二种方法，并且大量先驱植物的可存活种子也能在森林地被物上被找到。举个例子，在不列颠哥伦比亚沿海的道格拉斯西部铁杉森林里，每一平方米都能找到 1125 个可生长的种子。几乎所有在这个种子库里发芽的种子都是属于先驱植物。如这样快速的在这种已被干扰的区域殖民毫无疑问是在部分反映出这个雨林地表的种子库。

  【4】An adaptation that is well developed in colonizing species is a high degree of variationin germination (the beginning of a seed's growth). Seeds of a given species exhibit a widerange of germination dates, increasing the probability that at least some of the seeds willgerminate during a period of favorable environmental conditions. This is particularlyimportant for species that colonize an environment where there is no existing vegetation toameliorate climatic extremes and in which there may be great climatic diversity.

  这种在殖民物种里发展的很好的适应方法在萌芽期(种子成长初期)中存在很大程度的变化。一个特定物种的种子表现出一个较宽范围的发芽期，这增加了至少有一部分种子会在有良好的环境条件时期发芽的可能性。这对于要迁居到没有植被去改善极端气候和已具备气候多样性的地方的物种尤其重要。

  Species succession in plant communities, i.e., the temporal sequence of appearanceand disappearance of species is dependent on events occurring at different stages in the lifehistory of a species. Variation in rates of invasion and growth plays an important role indetermining patterns of succession, especially secondary succession. The species that are firstto colonize a site are those that produce abundant seed that is distributed successfully tonew sites. Such species generally grow rapidly and quickly dominate new sites, excludingother species with lower invasion and growth rates. The first community that occupies adisturbed area therefore may be composed of species with the highest rate of invasion,whereas the community of the subsequent stage may consist of plants with similar survivalrates but lower invasion rates.

  植物群落里的物种演替，意思就是说，物种出现和消失的时间顺序是依赖于在一个物种的生存史中发生在不同阶段的事件。入侵和生长比率的变化在决定演替模式中扮演着一个重要角色，尤其是在次级演替中。首先迁居到别处的物种都可以产出大量能够顺利分散到新地点的种子。像这些物种，一般都能迅速的生长和控制新区域，将那些入侵及生长水平更低的其他物种排除在外。因此率先占据受兵家必争之地的群落可能是由有着最高入侵性率的物种组成的，然而再后来阶段的群落可能就由有着相似存活率较低入侵水平的植被组成了。

  托福阅读试题

  1.According to paragraph 1, how doesdisturbance of a site influence its colonizationby a plant species?

  A.Disturbance reduces or eliminates competition byother species.

  B.Disturbance increases negative interactions with other organisms on the site.

  C.Disturbance prevents a plant species from colonizing a new site.

  D.Disturbance reduces the fertility of a site.

  1.第1段第4句话，通过火灾和砍伐的干涉要么消除竞争对手要么降低竞争的强度。

  2.The word "virtually" in the passage (paragraph 1) is closest in meaning to

  A.almost totally.

  B.unusually.

  C.consistently.

  D.unnaturally.

  2.virtually表示"实际上，几乎", 程度上对应almost totally。

  3.Why does the author mention a plowed field and a construction site in the passage?

  A.To argue that sites that have been affected by human activity tend to be colonized slowly.

  B.To illustrate the kind of sites that may be invaded by weeds.

  C.To contrast sites in terms of their suitability for colonization.

  D.To explain that exposing or compacting the soil results in successful colonization.

  3.第一段第5、6句话，肥沃的土地植物入侵的速度快，反之亦然。

  4.The word "despite"(paragraph 1) in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A.without.

  B.almost never.

  C.even though.

  D.perhaps.

  4.despite 尽管，对应even though 尽管/即使。

  5.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in thehighlighted sentence in the passage (paragraph 2)? Incorrect choices change themeaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  A.The seeds of pioneer species are usually carried by the wind to fertile sites, where theyreproduce very efficiently.

  B.Pioneer species are successful invaders because they produce lots of seeds that aredispersed effectively.

  C.Pioneer species produce their largest numbers of propagules during the earliest stages oftheir colonization.

  D.Pioneer species reproduce very quickly and efficiently because they produce very largenumber of seeds.

  5.原句强调了先锋物种入侵速度快的两个原因，一是能够产生大量可繁殖的种子，二是拥有有效的传播途径。原句和fertile sites没有关系，A错;C没有提到种子的繁殖力; D没有提到传播途径，只有B满足原句的条件。

  6.What can be inferred from paragraph 3 about the reason that large seeds aredispersed by birds or small animals rather than by wind?

  A.Large seeds are easier for birds and animals to see than are the small seeds dispersed by thewind.

  B.Large seeds are too heavy for the wind to disperse.

  C.Large seeds cannot be eaten by birds and animals.

  D.Large seeds are short-lived and thus require a more efficient means of dispersal than smallseeds do.

  6.第3段第2，3句：小种子通常靠风传播，大种子由鸟和动物实现传播。

  7.The phrase "the latter adaptation" in the passage (paragraph 3) refers to

  A.producing fewer seeds.

  B.producing larger seeds.

  C.dispersal by birds and small mammals.

  D.producing long-lived seeds.

  7.the latter adaptation，后一种适应性，段落开头讲的是短命种子，所以后一种适应性是指长命种子。

  8.The word "viable" in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning to

  A.able to survive.

  B.individual.

  C.large.

  D.remaining.

  8.viable，有生命力的，对应A。

  9.The example of the 100-year-old Douglas fir/western hemlock forest in paragraphto illustrates which of the following ideas?

  A.It is uncommon for older seed to germinate.

  B.Pioneer species tend to prefer forest floors for colonization purposes.

  C.Long-lived seeds of pioneer species can successfully germinate over long periods of time.

  D.Coastal British Columbia is particularly suited for pioneer species to develop.

  9.该例子的前一句话为观点句, 例子是为了说明观点，即长命种子在森林地面上很繁荣。

  10.According to paragraph 4, how do plants manage to germinate in areas with greatclimatic diversity and climatic extremes?

  A.By producing seeds only during favorable climatic conditions.

  B.By generating large numbers of seeds.

  C.By colonizing only those areas where other plants have survived.

  D.By producing seeds that have a wide range of germination dates.

  10.该段的第1句话，发芽时间的变化。

  11.The word "abundant〃 in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning to

  A.new.

  B.improved.

  C.suitable.

  D.plentiful.

  11.abundant，表示"丰富的"，对应D。

  12.According to paragraph 5, which of the following determines the sequence inwhich plant species will colonize a site?

  A.The extent of growth of a species on a prior site before it begins to colonize a secondarysite.

  B.The differences in invasion and growth rates across species.

  C.The degree of fertility of a site.

  D.The kind of disturbance that the site has undergone.

  12.该段第二句话，succession 对应colonize a site。

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could beadded to the passage. Where does the sentence best fit? They require relatively littleprotection or nutrients.

  Species succession in plant communities, i.e., the temporal sequence of appearance anddisappearance of species is dependent on events occurring at different stages in the lifehistory of a species.■【A】Variation in rates of invasion and growth plays an important role indetermining patterns of succession, especially secondary succession.■【B】The species that arefirst to colonize a site are those that produce abundant seed that is distributed successfullyto new sites.■【C】Such species generally grow rapidly and quickly dominate new sites,excluding other species with lower invasion and growth rates. The first community thatoccupies a disturbed area therefore may be composed of species with the highest rate ofinvasion, whereas the community of the subsequent stage may consist of plants with similarsurvival rates but lower invasion rates.■【D】

  13.they指代species. 原句说该物种的生存要求很低，就意味着他们更能存活，原句接下去可能阐述该物种如何靠着该优势来侵占土地繁殖。

  14. Prose Summary

  The ecology of a site is changed through its colonization by new plants that arrive andgrow there.

  A.The species that first colonize a disturbed site are typically ones that produce a largenumber of efficiently dispersed seeds.

  B.Plants that cannot successfully compete with other species can invade and colonize a siteonly if it is fertile and moist, such as a plowed field.

  C.Pioneer species arrive at a site first but have lower survival rates than do species thatarrive later.

  D.Producing seeds that germinate at various times over long periods allows some plants tocolonize sites that only occasionally present the right conditions for growth.

  E.Large, long-lived seeds tend to result in large seed banks with short germination periodsrequiring favorable environmental conditions for development.

  F.The successive appearance and disappearance of species on a site is a result of variationin species' rates of invasion, growth, and survival.

  14.A选项: 对应第2段的核心意思，第2句话;

  B选项: 原文中没有明确说明的信息;

  C选项: 违背原文意思，第三段最后一句;

  D选项: 对应第4段的核心意思;

  E选项: requiring favorable environmental conditions for development是原文中没有明确说明的信息;

  F选项: 对应第5段的核心意思。

  Siam,1851-1910

  In the late nineteenth century, political andsocial changes were occurring rapidly in Siam (nowThailand). The old ruling families were beingdisplaced by an evolving centralized government.These families were pensioned off (given a sum ofmoney to live on) or simply had their revenues taken away or restricted; their sons wereenticed away to schools for district officers, later to be posted in some faraway province; andthe old patron-client relations that had bound together local societies simply disintegrated.Local rulers could no longer protect their relatives and attendants in legal cases, and with theending in 1905 of the practice of forcing peasant farmers to work part-time for local rulers, therulers no longer had a regular base for relations with rural populations. The old local rulingfamilies, then, were severed from their traditional social context.

  在后十九世纪，政治和机经的转变很快出现在暹罗(现在的泰国)。同时老的家族正在被进化的中央集权的政府所取代。这些家庭被取消了抚恤金或仅仅拿走或限制他们的收入。他们的儿子被诱离学校成为新政权的人员，后来被告知去一些很远的省，并且老的赞助商客户关系和当地分解的社会有联系。在一些法律案例中当地的统治者不能保护他们的亲属和侍从。在 1905 年底被强迫的农民的练习是为了给当地的统治者做兼职。统治者与农村的人们不再有正常的基本关系。当地的老的统治家族被断绝和农村和他们传统的社会环境。

  The same situation viewed from the perspective of the rural population is even morecomplex. According to the government's first census of the rural population, taken in 1905,there were about thirty thousand villages in Siam. This was probably a large increase over thefigure even two or three decades earlier, during the late 1800s. It is difficult to imagine it now,but Siam's Central Plain in the late 1800s was nowhere near as densely settled as it is today.There were still forests closely surrounding Bangkok into the last half of the nineteenth century,and even at century’s end there were wild elephants and tigers roaming the countryside only twenty or thirty miles away.

  同样的情况从农村人口的角度来看则更为复杂。根据政府的第一次农村人口的人口普查,1905 年,在暹罗大约有三万个村庄。这大量的增加可能出现在二三十年前，即 19 世纪末。现在很难想象,但是暹罗的中部在 1800 年代末远远没有像今天这么多人口定居。十九世纪下半叶，曼谷周围还有大片的森林，甚至在世纪末的时候，距离乡村二三十英里远的地方还有野生的大象和老虎。

  Much population movement involved the opening up of new lands for rice cultivation.Two things made this possible and encouraged it to happen. First, the opening of the kingdomto the full force of international trade by the Bowring Treaty (1855) rapidly encouragedeconomic specialization in the growing of rice, mainly to feed the rice-deficient portions ofAsia (India and China in particular). The average annual volume of rice exported from Siamgrew from under 60 million kilograms per year in the late 1850s to more than 660 millionkilograms per year at the turn of the century; and over the same period the average price perkilogram doubled. During the same period, the area planted in rice increased from about230,000 acres to more than 350,000 acres. This growth was achieve as the result of thecollective decisions of thousands of peasants families to expand the amount of land theycultivated, clear and plant new land, or adopt more intensive methods of agriculture.

  许多人口运动包含了为了粮食耕种开发新土地。两件事使得这变得有可能且促使其发生。首先，1855 年《鲍林条约》制定的王国对全面国际贸易的开放促进了种植大米的经济专业化，这些大米主要供应给亚洲粮食缺乏的地区(尤其是印度和中国)。平均每年从 Siam 出口的粮食从十九世纪五十年代末的六千万千克不到增长到该世纪末的六亿六千万多公斤;同样期间平均价格翻了一番。与此同时粮食种植地从大约 230000 公顷增加到 350000 公顷。取得这样的增长来自于农村人集体决定去扩张他们的耕地，清理并开垦新土地，或是采用更集中的农业模式.

  They were able to do so because of our second consideration. They were relatively freerthan they had been half a century earlier. Over the course of the Fifth Reign (1868-1910), theties that bound rural people to the aristocracy and local ruling elites were greatly reduced.Peasants now paid a tax on individuals instead of being required to render labor service to thegovernment. Under these conditions, it made good sense to thousands of peasant families to ineffect work full-time at what they had been able to do only part-time previously because of therequirement to work for the government: grow rice for the marketplace.

  他们有能力去做是第二原因。他们比半世纪前的时候更能加自由。因为十五世的统治将山区人民与贵族和当地统治者的关系斩断了。农民现在支付个人的税来替代为政府服务。在这些条件下制造了一个很好的理念给这些农民家庭全天去做以前他们只在闲暇时间做的农事，这是因为要为政府工作：种植大米给市场。

  Numerous changes accompanied these developments. The rural population bothdispersed and grew, and was probably less homogeneous and more mobile than it had beena generation earlier. The villages became more vulnerable to arbitrary treatment bygovernment bureaucrats as local elites now had less control over them. By the early twentiethcentury, as government modernization in a sense caught up with what had been happening inthe countryside since the 1870s, the government bureaucracy intruded more and more intovillage life. Provincial police began to appear, along with district officers and cattle registrationand land deeds and registration for compulsory military service. Village handicraftsdiminished or died out completely as people bought imported consumer goods, like cloth andtools, instead of making them themselves. More economic variation took shape in ruralvillages, as some grew prosperous from farming while others did not. As well as can bemeasured, rural standards of living improved in the Fifth Reign. But the statistical averagesmean little when measured against the harsh realities of peasant life.

  大量的改变伴随着进步。农村人口散播开来并有所增长，同时与更早的一代人相比，他们更不均匀切具有更高的移动性。村庄变得更容易受到政府官员的专制对待，地方精英现在已经对他们的控制较少。到了二十世纪初，在农村由于政府现代化赶上了所发生的一切，因为 19 世纪 70 年代，从某种意义上说，政府官僚在乡村生活侵入越来越多地。地方警察开始出现，连同地方人员和家畜注册和土地和登记被强迫服务于军事。村民的手工业减少或者完全灭绝让人们带来进口的产品，像衣服和工具，取代了他们自己做的东西。很多经济变化在乡村发生，比如一些其他种植的繁荣。农村的生活标准在十五世有所提高。但是在人们艰难的生活现状中这个统计的平均值没有很大意义。

  托福阅读试题

  1.The word "severed" in the passage (paragraph 1) is closest in meaning to

  A.cut off.

  B.viewed.

  C.protected.

  D.rescued.

  1.sever表示"分离，切开"， 对应cut off。

  2.According to paragraph 1, the situation for Siam's old ruling families changed in all of the following ways EXCEPT:

  A.Their incomes were reduced.

  B.Their sons were posted as district officers in distant provinces.

  C.They could sell lands that had traditionally belonged to them.

  D.They had less control over the rural populations.

  2.A选项对应该段第三句revenues taken away or restricted;

  B选项对应该段第三句 their sons were enticed away to schools for district office later to be posted in some faraway province;

  C选项原文中没有提及;

  D选项对应该段倒数第二句。

  3.According to paragraph 2, which of the following was true of Siam in 1905?

  A.Its urban population began to migrate out of the cities and into the country.

  B.Its Central Plain was almost as densely populated as it is today.

  C.It was so rural that wild elephants and tigers sometimes roamed Bangkok.

  D.It had many more villages than it did in the late 1800s.

  3.该段第2，3句;1905年有3万人比起18世纪晚期有很大的增长。

  4.The phrase "rice-deficient portions" in the passage (paragraph 3) is closest in meaning to

  A.the parts that consume rice.

  B.the parts that do not have enough rice.

  C.the parts where rice is grown.

  D.the parts that depend primarily on rice.

  4.rice-deficient 缺乏大米，对应do not have enough rice。

  5.Paragraph 3 mentions all of the following as signs of economic growth in Siam EXCEPT

  A.an increase in the price of rice.

  B.an increase in the amount of rice leaving Siam.

  C.an increase in the nutritional quality of the rice grown.

  D.an increase in the amount of land used for rice production.

  5.A选项对应the average price per kilogram doubled;

  B选项对应该段第4句话;

  C选项原文中没有提及;

  D选项对应该段的最后一句。

  6.According to paragraph 3, farming families increased the amount of rice they grew in part by

  A.growing varieties of rice that produced greater yields.

  B.forming collective farms by joining together with other farm families.

  C.planting rice in areas that had previously remained unplanted.

  D.hiring laborers to help them tend their fields.

  6.该段的最后一句plant new land。

  7.According to paragraph 4, what happened after the government ended the practice of requiring rural people to perform labor for it?

  A.Rural people became more closely connected to the aristocracy.

  B.Rural people spent more time growing rice for profit.

  C.The government began to pay the laborers who grew rice for it.

  D.The government introduced a special tax on rice.

  7.该段最后一句：it made good sense to thousands of peasant families to in effect work full-time, grow rice for the marketplace.

  8.Which of the following best describes the relationship between paragraphs 3 and 4 in the passage?

  A.Paragraph 4 provides further evidence of the economic growth of Siam discussed in paragraph 3.B.Paragraph 4 continues the discussion begun in paragraph 3 of farming improvements that led to economic growth.

  C.Paragraph 4 examines a particular effect of the Bowring Treaty mentioned in paragraph 3.D.Paragraph 4 discusses the second of two factors that contributed to the expansion of rice farming mentioned in paragraph 3.

  8.解释 第3段提到了2个因素中的第一个,出口大米; 第4段第一句话表明要讨论第二个因素

  9.The word "dispersed" in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning to

  A.spread out.

  B.gained power.

  C.adapted.

  D.specialized.

  9.disperse表示"散开，驱散"，对应 spread out 传播，散布。

  10.The word "compulsory" in the passage (paragraph 5) is closest in meaning to

  A.foreign.

  B.formal.

  C.required.

  D.preferred.

  10.compulsory 义务的，强制性的，对应required 必修的，必须的。

  11.According to paragraph 5, which of the following was true of Siam's rural people during the Fifth Reign?

  A.They were forced to spend most of the profits from rice growing on registrations required by the government.

  B.Their lives remained very difficult even though statistics suggest that their quality of life improved.

  C.The non-farmers among them were helped by the government more than the farmers among them were.

  D.They were more prosperous when they were ruled by local elites than when they were ruled by the more modern government of the Fifth Reign.

  11.该段最后一句：统计数据不能说明什么，农民依然活在水深火热之中。

  12.According to paragraph 5, the government bureaucracy intruded in village life by

  A.requiring the people to register their cattle and land.

  B.requiring the people to buy certain kinds of imported goods.

  C.discouraging the people from making handicrafts and tools.

  D.encouraging more people to take up farming.

  12.请查看该段第5句。

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage. Where does the sentence best fit? And yet, how is it that the peasants were able to choose to expand their economic activity in response to the market opportunities?

  ■【A】They were able to do so because of our second consideration.■【B】They were relatively freer than they had been half a century earlier.■【C】Over the course of the Fifth Reign (1868-1910), the ties that bound rural people to the aristocracy and local ruling elites were greatly reduced. Peasants now paid a tax on individuals instead of being required to render labor service to the government.■【D】Under these conditions, it made good sense to thousands of peasant families to in effect work full-time at what they had been able to do only part-time previously because of the requirement to work for the government: grow rice for the marketplace.

  13.该段第一句do so表示前面必有指代，because表示原因，对应了how。

  14. Prose Summary

  During the late nineteenth century, changes in Siam's power structure had important economic consequences.

  A.Population movement occurred and rice cultivation intensified because Siam became more actively involved in international trade.

  B.Changes in taxation and the ending of the requirement that people work part-time for the rulers allowed farmers to produce more rice for the marketplace.

  C.Population increases occurred in part because Siam's farmers were able to produce more rice to feed the population.

  D.Land became so valuable that villagers had to pay the government for the land that they worked on.

  E.Although rural living standards may have improved somewhat, prosperity varied from village to village and government bureaucracy played a greater role in village life.

  F.Government modernization in the early twentieth century resulted in the loss of some freedoms that the rural population had gained from the traditional ruling classes.

  14.A选项对应第3段核心意思;

  B选项对应第4段核心意思;

  C选项原文中没有明确说明;

  D选项原文中没有明确说明;

  E选项对应第5段核心意思;

  F选项对应第5段但原文中没有提到loss of freedoms的概念。

  Distributions of Tropical Bee Colonies

  In 1977 ecologists Stephen Hubbell and Leslie Johnson recorded a dramatic example of how social interactions can produce and enforce regular spacing in a population. They studied competition and nest spacing in populations of stingless bees in tropical dry forests in Costa Rica. Though these bees do no sting, rival colonies of some species fight fiercely over potential nesting sites.

  1977 年生态学家 SH 和 LJ 记录了一个例子关于社会联系怎么产生和加强人口中的规律性间隔。他们研究竞争和 CR 热带干旱深林的无刺蜜蜂的人口巢穴间隔。虽然这些蜜蜂不蛰人，但是一些与之竞争的物种往往在潜在的栖息地大打出手。

  Stingless bees are abundant in tropical and subtropical environments, where they gather nectar and pollen from a wide variety of flowers. They generally nest in trees and live in colonies made up of hundreds to thousands of workers. Hubbell and Johnson observed that some species of stingless bees are highly aggressive to members of their species from other colonies, while other species are not. Aggressive species usually forage in groups and feed mainly on flowers that occur in high-density clumps. Nonaggressive species feed singly or in small groups and on more widely distributed flowers.

  无刺蜜蜂广泛分布于热带和亚热带环境，他们在此地收集多种花蜜和花粉。他们逐渐地栖息在树上和由成千上万的工蜂组成的群体。H 和 J 观察到一些无刺的蜜蜂对于其他种群的蜜蜂有较强的攻击性，而其他的种群没有该特性。侵略性的物种常常群体觅食且主要食用高浓度块状花蜜。而非侵略性的蜜蜂则单独或小团体觅食且食用更广泛分布的花。

  Hubbell and Johnson studied several species of stingless bees to determine whether there is a relationship between aggressiveness and patterns of colony distribution. They predicted that the colonies of aggressive species would show regular distributions, while those of nonaggressive species would show random or closely grouped (clumped)distribution. They concentrated their studies on a thirteen-hectare tract of tropical dry forest that contained numerous nests of nine species of stingless bees.

  H 和 B 研究一些种类的无刺蜜蜂去决定是否在侵略性和群体分配模式上有联系。他们预测侵略性物种会有规律性的非配而非侵略性的物种会随机或是集群分配。他们把他们的研究集中于 13 热带干燥森林公顷的土地，这块地上包括多个九种无刺的蜜蜂的巢穴.

  Though Hubbell and Johnson were interested in how bee behavior might affect colony distributions, they recognized that the availability of potential nest sites for colonies could also affect distributions. So as one of the first steps in their study, they mapped the distributions of trees suitable for nesting. ￠ They found that potential nest trees were distributed randomly through the study area. ￠ They also found that the number of potential nest sites was much greater than the number of bee colonies.

  然而 Hubbell 和 Johnson 对蜜蜂的行为如何影响殖民地的分布感兴趣，他们意识到潜在可筑巢树的可得性也影响分布。因此作为他们研究的第一步，他们绘出了适合筑巢的树的分布地图。他们也发现潜在的筑巢的树是胡乱地分布在他们的研究区域。他们也发现潜在的可筑巢树的数量远远大于蜂群的数量。

  What did these measurements show the researchers? The number of colonies in the study area was not limited by availability of suitable trees, and a clumped or regular distribution of colonies was not due to an underlying clumped or regular distribution of potential nest sites.

  这些测量值向研究员表面了什么?蜂群的数量不是被适宜树的可得性所限制并且成群的或有规律的蜂群分布不是由于潜在的大量的或有规律的适宜筑巢树的分布。

  Hubbell and Johnson mapped the nests of five of the nine species of stingless bees accurately, and the nests of four of these species were distributed regularly. All four species with regular nest distributions were highly aggressive to bees from other colonies of their own species. The fifth species was not aggressive, and its nests were randomly distributed over the study area.

  Hubbell 和 Johnson 准确地绘制了 9 个无刺蜜蜂种群的 5 个巢的地图，并且 4 个这种种群的巢是规律的分布。4 个有着这种有规律巢的分布的种群都是对相同种群来自不同蜂群具有高度攻击性的。第 5 种种群是没有攻击性的，并且他们的巢都胡乱地分布在研究区域中的.

  The researchers also studied the process by which the aggressive species establish new colonies. Their observations provide insights into the mechanisms that establish and maintain the regular nest distribution of these species. Aggressive species apparently mark prospective nest sites with pheromones, chemical substances secreted by some animals for communication with other members of their species. The pheromone secreted by these stingless bees attracts and aggregates members of their colony to the prospective nest site; however, it also attracts workers from other nests.

  研究者们同样研究具有攻击性物种建立新殖民地的过程。他们的观察提供了对那个建立和维持这些物种有规律的巢穴侵略的机制的理解。 这些具有攻击性的物种更喜欢用信息素去标记那些有发展前景的巢穴，这种信息素是一些动物分泌的为了与同种物种不同成员之间交流的化学物质。 这些被无刺的蜜蜂分泌的信息素吸引着并且聚集他们“殖民军”中的其他成员到那些有发展远景的巢穴上。 然而，他们也吸引了来自其他巢穴的工蜂。

  If workers from two different colonies arrive at the prospective nest at the same time, they may fight for possession. Fights may be escalated into protracted battles. The researchers observed battles over a nest tree that lasted for two weeks. Each dawn, fifteen to thirty workers from two competing colonies arrived at the contested nest site. The workers from the two colonies faced off in two swarms and displayed and fought with each other. In the displays, pairs of bees faced each other, slowly flew vertically to a height of about three meters, and then grappled each other to the ground. When the two bees hit the ground,they separated, faced off, and performed another aerial display. Bees did not appear to be injured in these fights, which were apparently ritualized. The two swarms abandoned the battle at about 8 or 9 A.M. each morning, only to re-form and begin again the next day just after dawn. While this contest over an unoccupied nest site produced no obvious mortality, fights over occupied nests sometimes kill over 1,000 bees in a single battle.

  如果那些来自其他殖民军的工蜂同事到达了那些有发展远景的巢穴，他们可能会为了所有权而战斗。这些战斗可能会升级为长时间的战争。这些研究者们研究巢穴所在的树上的战争长达两周。每次黎明，来自两个不同殖民军当中的十五到三十只工蜂到达那些会发生战争的巢穴。那些来自两个殖民军的职蚁分成两个蜂群，战列，然后彼此之间争斗。在战列时，一堆蜜蜂面对面，竖直慢慢的飞刀大概三米的高度，然后把对方打击到地上。当两个蜜蜂都掉落在地上，他们分开，面对面，然后再一次空中的战列。蜜蜂不会再这些打斗当中受伤，这些打斗很明显就是程序化的。两个蜂群在每天早上大概 8,9 点离开战争，仅仅隔天的黎明又再次组队。当这样的战斗通过一个没有被占领的巢穴的时候不会留下明显的战斗痕迹的时候，那些在已经被占领的巢穴的战争有时仅仅一场战争就要死超过一千只蜜蜂。

  问题

  1. The word “rival” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A) established

  B) competing

  C) nearby

  D) different

  2. According to paragraph 2, some species of stingless bees are aggressive mainly toward

  A) nonaggressive bees that forage on the same flowers

  B) aggressive bees of other species

  C) bees from their own colony

  D) bees of their own species from different colonies

  3. According to paragraph 3, Hubbell and Johnson hypothesized that

  A) the distribution pattern of bee colonies determines the degree of aggressiveness the bees display

  B) nests of nonaggressive bees have either a random or a clumped distribution, while nests of aggressive bees have a regular distribution

  C) nests of nonaggressive bees are generally both closer together and more regularly distributed than those of aggressive bees

  D) nests of aggressive bees tend to be more regular in shape than those of nonaggressive bees

  4. According to paragraph 4, why did Hubbell and Johnson begin their study by mapping all the potential nest sites?

  A) To determine whether the availability of potential nest sites played a role in the distribution of bee colonies

  B) To know exactly where in the study area the colonies of all the different bee species were located

  C) To be sure that suitable nesting sites were equally available in all parts of the study area

  D) To find out whether different species of bees preferred different types of trees as potential nest sites

  5. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  A) The limited number of colonies was not due to the distribution or availability of potential nesting sites.

  B) There was no lack of suitable trees or potential nesting sites in the study area.

  C) The number of nests was directly related to the number or the distribution of suitable trees.

  D) Neither the number nor the distribution of colonies could be explained by the availability of suitable nest sites.

  6. According to paragraph 5, Hubbell and Johnson determined

  A) the order in which the colonies in the study area had been established

  B) the level of aggressiveness of each of the nine species

  C) the distribution pattern of the nests of five of the nine species

  D) the number of colonies of each of the nine species

  7. Why does the author indicate that “The fifth species was not aggressive, and its nests were randomly distributed over the study area”?

  A) To identify research results that contradicted Hubbell and Johnson’s original hypothesis

  B) To indicate that research results confirmed that nest distribution was related to aggressiveness

  C) To introduce the hypothesis that, within the same species, not all colonies are aggressive

  D) To point out that both aggressive and nonaggressive species are equally successful at finding nest sites

  8. The phrase “insights into” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A) tools to study

  B) opportunities for

  C) evidence of

  D) an understanding of

  9. According to paragraph 6, what is one result of using pheromones to mark nest sites?

  A) The use of pheromones tends to result in nest clumping.

  B) Pheromones attract animals other than bees to prospective nest sites.

  C) Pheromones tend to make bees aggressive.

  D) Pheromones secreted by bees of one colony also attract bees of other colonies.

  10. The word “escalated” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  A) intensified

  B) transformed

  C) combined

  D) lengthened

  11. Paragraph 7 supports which of the following ideas about fights over occupied nests?

  A) They are more violent than battles over unoccupied nest sites.

  B) They mostly occur between colonies of different species.

  C) They are more frequent than battles over unoccupied sites.

  D) They last longer than battles over unoccupied sites do.

  12. Look at the four squares [￠] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.For example, a clumped distribution of nests might simply reflect a clumped distribution of suitable nesting sites. Where does the sentence best fit?

  13. Select from the seven sentences below the three sentences that correctly characterize aggressive species of stingless bees and the two sentences that correctly characterize nonaggressive species.Answer Choices:

  A) Nests are regularly distributed

  B) Nests are sometimes located close together

  C) Nests always occur in large clumps

  D) Colonies are generally made up of fewer than 100 workers

  E) Members of a colony feed alone or in small groups

  F) Bees feed mainly on flowers that grow in high-density clumps

  G) Nest spacing is maintained by fighting Aggressive Stingless Bees l

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