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  The Empire of Alexander the Great

  In 334 B.C. Alexander the Great took his Greek armies to the east and in only a few years completed his creation of an empire out of much of southwest Asia In the new empire, barriers to trade and the movement of peoples were removed; markets were put in touch with one another. In the next generation thousands of Greek traders and artisans would enter this wider world to seek their fortunes. Alexander’s actions had several important consequences for the region occupied by the empire.

  The first of these was the expansion of Greek civilization throughout the Middle East. Greek became the great international language. Towns and cities were established not only as garrisons (military posts) but as centers for the diffusion of Greek language, literature, and thought, particularly through libraries, as at Antioch (in modern Turkey) and the most famous of all, at Alexandria in Egypt, which would be the finest in the world for the next thousand years.

  Second, this internationalism spelled the end of the classical Greek city-state——the unit of government in ancient Greece——and everything it stood for. Most city-states had been quite small in terms of citizenry, and this was considered to be a good thing. The focus of life was the agora, the open marketplace where assemblies could be held and where issues of the day, as well as more fundamental topics such as the purpose of government or the relationship between law and freedom, could be discussed and decisions made by individuals in person. The philosopher Plato (428-348 B.C.) felt that the ideal city-state should have about 5,000 citizens, because to the Greeks it was important that everyone in the community should know each other. In decision making, the whole body of citizens together would have the necessary knowledge in order generally to reach the right decision, even though the individual might not be particularly qualified to decide. The philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.), who lived at a time when the city-state system was declining, believed that a political entity of 100,000 simply would not be able to govern itself.

  This implied that the city-state was based on the idea that citizens were not specialists but had multiple interests and talents——each a so-called jack-of-all-trades who could engage in many areas of life and politics. It implied a respect for the wholeness of life and a consequent dislike of specialization. ■ It implied economic and military self-sufficiency. ■ But with the development of trade and commerce in Alexander’s empire came the growth of cities; it was no longer possible to be a jack-of-all-trades. ■ One now had to specialize, and with specialization came professionalism. ■ There were getting to be too many persons to know, an easily observable community of interests was being replaced by a multiplicity of interests. The city-state was simply too "small-time."

  Third, Greek philosophy was opened up to the philosophy and religion of the East At the peak of the Greek city-state, religion played an important part. Its gods—such as Zeus, father of the gods, and his wife Hera—were thought of very much as being like human beings but with superhuman abilities. Their worship was linked to the rituals connected with one’s progress through life—birth, marriage, and death— and with invoking protection against danger, making prophecies, and promoting healing, rather than to any code of behavior. Nor was there much of a theory of afterlife.

  Even before Alexander’s time, a life spent in the service of their city-state no longer seemed ideal to Greeks The Athenian philosopher Socrates (470-399 B.C.) was the first person in Greece to propose a morality based on individual conscience rather than the demands of the state, and

  for this he was accused of not believing in the city’s gods and so corrupting the youth, and he was condemned to death. Greek philosophy—or even a focus on conscience—might complement religion but was no substitute for it, and this made Greeks receptive to the religious systems of the Middle East, even if they never adopted them completely The combination of the religious instinct of Asia with the philosophic spirit of Greece spread across the world in the era after Alexander’s death, blending the culture of the Middle East with the culture of Greece.

  1. According to paragraph 1, Alexander the Great did which of the following?

  O Regulated the movement and resettlement in southwest Asia of thousands of Greek people

  O Opened up opportunities in new markets for traders and artisans

  O Created new restrictions on trade

  O Encouraged Greek citizens to choose military careers over careers in trade

  2. The word "diffusion" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  O adoption

  O spread

  O teaching

  O learning

  3. In paragraph 2,the author mentions the libraries at Antioch and Alexandria in order to

  O provide evidence that the library was a cultural institution in the East before it spread to the West

  O explain why it was important for Greek to become the great international language

  O identify two of the sources of Greek cultural influence within Alexander’s empire

  O support the claim that the Greeks transformed Middle Eastern garrisons and military posts into cultural centers

  4. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  O Assemblies were held in the agora to discuss some issues of the day, but more fundamental questions were decided by key individuals.

  O In a culture where philosophical discussions were frequent, some individuals questioned the value of a life focused on the marketplace.

  O Life centered around the agora, an open marketplace and site for public debate, where individuals could participate in decision making.

  O The focus of individuals was on fundamental topics such as the purpose of government and the connection between law and freedom.

  5. According to paragraph 3，Plato believed that the ideal city-state should be

  O governed by a ruling body of about 5,000 city leaders with a total population of no more than 100,000

  O led by the most qualified individual

  O governed by the group of citizens with the most knowledge about the issues of the day

  O small enough so that everyone would know each other

  6. Why does the author mention "The philosopher Aristotle"?

  O To provide additional evidence that the ancient Greeks believed that political units must be small

  O To demonstrate the accuracy of philosophers’ predictions about the end of the classical Greek city-state

  O To show how changes in the city-state system from the fifth to the third century B C. were reflected in the ideas of its philosophers

  O To support the claim that small city-states were ideally suited to produce philosophical inquiry

  7. The word "declining" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  O at its best

  O rapidly expanding

  O first being formed

  O weakening

  8. According to paragraph 4, Alexander's empire was characterized by all of the following EXCEPT

  O decreased need for military control

  O growing professionalism

  O growth of cities

  O specialization in trades

  9. The word ”peak” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  O end

  O command

  O high point

  O beginning

  10. According to paragraph 5, religion in the Greek city-state involved

  O a set of rules governing behavior

  O a detailed conception of life after death

  O rituals related to significant life events

  O worship of gods who were not like humans

  11. According to paragraph 6，what was the basis for the accusation against Socrates?

  O He encouraged people to be guided by their own consciences instead of by the state.

  O He stated that people had a duty to fight against the corruption of their leaders.

  O He reasoned that the needs of the youth were more important than the needs of the state.

  O He argued that people’s behavior should be guided by the religious systems of the Middle East.

  12.The word "propose" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  O suggest

  O deny

  O consider

  O question

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  Likewise, the collective decision-making process of the open marketplace was no longer practical.

  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong To remove an answer choice, click on it.

  To review the passage, click VIEW TEXT

  Alexander the Great’s creation of a vast empire had important consequences for Greece and the conquered areas of southwest Asia.

  Answer choices

  Scholars from Antioch, Alexandria, and other Middle Eastern cultural centers came to Greece to study the Greek language and culture.

  Increasing urbanization and the elimination of trade barriers meant the end of the Greek city-state and the creation of a much larger political and economic body.

  The professionalism and specialization so prized by the ancient Greeks were replaced by a more generalized philosophy of education in the empire.

  The expansion of Alexander’s empire led to the diffusion of Greek language, literature, and thought throughout the Middle East.

  The empire saw the birth of a new culture, merging Greek philosophical ideas with the religious spirit of Asia.

  Religion played an important part in the expansion of the empire, as Alexander introduced

  Zeus and the other Greek gods to Asia.

  The Origin of Petroleum

  Petroleum is defined as a gaseous, liquid, and semisolid naturally occurring substance that consists chiefly of hydrocarbons (chemical compounds of carbon and hydrogen). Petroleum is therefore a term that includes both oil and natural gas. Petroleum is nearly always found in marine sedimentary rocks. In the ocean, microscopic phytoplankton (tiny floating plants) and bacteria (simple, single-celled organisms) are the principal sources of organic matter that is trapped and buried in sediment Most of the organic matter is buried in clay that is slowly converted to a fine-grained sedimentary rock known as shale. During this conversion, organic compounds are transformed to oil and natural gas.

  ■ Sampling on the continental shelves and along the base of the continental slopes has shown that fine muds beneath the seafloor contain up to 8 percent organic matter. ■ Two additional kinds of evidence support the hypothesis that petroleum is a product of the decomposition of organic matter: oil possesses optical properties known only in hydrocarbons derived from organic matter, and oil contains nitrogen and certain compounds believed to originate only in living matter. ■ A complex sequence of chemical reactions is involved in converting the original solid organic matter to oil and gas, and additional chemical changes may occur in the oil and gas even after they have formed. ■

  It is now well established that petroleum migrates through aquifers and can become trapped in reservoirs. Petroleum migration is analogous to groundwater migration. When oil and gas are squeezed out of the shale in which they originated and enter a body of sandstone or limestone somewhere above, they migrate readily because sandstones (consisting of quartz grains) and limestones (consisting of carbonate minerals) are much more permeable than any shale. The force of molecular attraction between oil and quartz or carbonate minerals is weaker than that between water and quartz or carbonate minerals. Hence, because oil and water do not mix, water remains fastened to the quartz or carbonate grains, while oil occupies the central parts of the larger openings in the porous sandstone or limestone. Because oil is lighter than water, it tends to glide upward past the carbonate- and quartz-held water. In this way, oil becomes segregated from the water; when it encounters a trap, it can form a pool.

  Most of the petroleum that forms in sediments does not find a suitable trap and eventually makes its way, along with groundwater, to the surface of the sea. It is estimated that no more than 0.1 percent of all the organic matter originally buried in a sediment is eventually trapped in an oil pool. It is not surprising, therefore, that the highest ratio of oil and gas pools to volume of sediment is found in rock no older than 2.5 million years—young enough so that little of the petroleum has leaked away—and that nearly 60 percent of all oil and gas discovered so far has been found in strata that formed in the last 65 million years This does not mean that older rocks produced less petroleum; it simply means that oil in older rocks has had a longer time in which to leak away.

  How much oil is there in the world? This is an extremely controversial question. Many billions of barrels of oil have already been pumped out of the ground. A lot of additional oil has been located by drilling but is still waiting to be pumped out Possibly a great deal more oil remains to be found by drilling. Unlike coal, the volume of which can be accurately estimated, the volume of undiscovered oil can only be guessed at. Guesses involve the use of accumulated experience from a century of drilling. Knowing how much oil has been found in an intensively drilled area, such as eastern Texas, experts make estimates of probable volumes in other regions

  where rock types and structures are similar to those in eastern Texas. Using this approach and considering all the sedimentary basins of the world, experts estimate that somewhere between 1,500 and 3,000 billion barrels of oil will eventually be discovered.

  1.According to paragraph 1, petroleum is formed in which of the following ways?

  O Bacteria and tiny plants undergo a change while they are buried in clay.

  O Carbon and hydrogen combine to form shale.

  O Ocean rocks are converted into organic compounds.

  O Oil and gas rise to the surface of sediment and are trapped in rocks.

  2.The word "trapped" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  O hidden

  O destroyed

  O caught

  O found

  3. All of the following are cited in paragraph 2 as evidence that petroleum is a product of the decomposition of organic matter EXCEPT

  O the amount of organic matter found in layers of mud below the seafloor

  O the chemical changes that occur in oil and natural gas after they have formed

  O the optical properties of oil

  O the fact that oil contains nitrogen and other compounds believed to be of organic origin

  4. According to paragraph 2, which of the following is true of the change of solid organic material into oil and gas?

  O It is more likely to occur along the base of continental slopes than on the continental shelves.

  O It only takes place in areas where the seafloor contains at least 8 percent organic matter.

  O It is a process that can be reversed through chemical changes that occur after the oil and gas have formed.

  O It involves a complicated series of chemical reactions.

  5. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.

  O When oil and gas are squeezed out of the rock in which they originated, it is probably because the layer of rock above them is much more permeable than shale.

  O Sandstones, which are made of quartz grains, and limestones, which are made of carbonate minerals, can hold much more oil and gas than any shale can.

  O When they are squeezed from the shale in which they were formed, oil and gas move easily into the much more permeable layers of sandstone or limestone above.

  O Oil and gas are squeezed out of sandstones, consisting of quartz grains, and migrate readily into limestones, which consist of carbonate minerals and are much more permeable.

  6. Why does the author include the information that "The force of molecular attraction between oil and quartz or carbonate minerals is weaker than that between water and quartz or carbonate

  minerals."?

  O To help explain why petroleum behaves differently from water in bodies of sandstone and limestone

  O To illustrate why petroleum migrates more rapidly through sandstone than it does through limestone

  O To help explain how water and petroleum can mix in certain aquifers

  O To account for the different molecular structures of oil and water

  7. The word "encounters" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  O meets

  O forms

  O escapes

  O avoids

  8. The word "suitable" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  O noticeable

  O permanent

  O protected

  O appropriate

  9. According to paragraph 4, what happens to most of the petroleum that forms in sediments?

  O It remains in underground pools.

  O It is buried under organic matter.

  O It rises to the surface of the ocean.

  O It combines with the minerals found in groundwater.

  10. Paragraph 4 supports which of the following statements about future petroleum discoveries?

  O Less petroleum will be found than in the past because the ratio of petroleum pools to volume of sediment will decrease.

  O Most of the petroleum will come from rocks that are less than 65 million years old.

  O Petroleum that has leaked away from older rocks will be the source of most new discoveries.

  O More petroleum will become available because the amount of trapped organic matter will increase.

  11. The phrase "is an extremely controversial question" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  O is a question of great importance

  O is a question causing strong disagreement

  O is a question that has existed for a long time

  O is a question composed of many related parts

  12. According to paragraph 5, eastern Texas is an example of a geologic region where

  O oil is located but has not yet been pumped out

  O experts accurately predicted the rock types and structures found there

  O the volume of oil can only be guessed at

  O intensive oil exploration has occurred over a long time

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  Because such muds are a major source of petroleum, scientists believe that petroleum originated as living organisms.

  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage This question is worth 2 points.

  Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong To remove an answer choice, click on it.

  To review the passage, click VIEW TEXT

  Petroleum, which includes both oil and natural gas, can be a gaseous, liquid, or semisolid substance.

  Answer Choices

  Petroleum comes from organic matter that has undergone a complex series of chemical changes under the seafloor.

  Although most of the petroleum formed leaks away into the ocean, some migrates from shale to sandstone or limestone, and is caught in pools.

  Porous rocks made of quartz or carbonate minerals are particularly likely to house oil pools because of their strong molecular attraction with oil.

  Petroleum forms best when organic matter is evenly distributed over a large area and does not exceed 8 percent of the material in the clay.

  More than 60 percent of the petroleum discovered so far has been found in rocks that are less than two-and-a-half million years old.

  It is difficult to estimate the total amount of petroleum in the world, but experts believe that 1,500-3,000 billion barrels will eventually be discovered.

  El Nirio

  The cold Humboldt Current of the Pacific Ocean flows toward the equator along the coasts of Ecuador and Peru in South America. When the current approaches the equator, the westward-flowing trade winds cause nutrient-rich cold water along the coast to rise from deeper depths to more shallow ones. This upwelling of water has economic repercussions. Fishing, especially for anchovies, is a major local industry.

  Every year during the months of December and January, a weak, warm countercurrent replaces the normally cold coastal waters. Without the upwelling of nutrients from below to feed the fish, fishing comes to a standstill. Fishers in this region have known the phenomenon for hundreds of years. In fact, this is the time of year they traditionally set aside to tend to their equipment and await the return of cold water. The residents of the region have given this phenomenon the name of El Nifio，,which is Spanish for "the child," because it occurs at about the time of the celebration of birth of the Christ child.

  While the warm-water countercurrent usually lasts for two months or less, there are occasions when the disruption to the normal flow lasts for many months. In these situations, water temperatures are raised not just along the coast, but for thousands of kilometers offshore. Over the last few decades, the term El Nifio has come to be used to describe these exceptionally strong episodes and not the annual event. During the past 60 years, at least ten El Nifios have been observed Not only do El Niftos affect the temperature of the equatorial Pacific, but the strongest of them impact global weather.

  The processes that interact to produce an El Nifio involve conditions all across the Pacific, not just in the waters off South America. Over 60 years ago, Sir Gilbert Walker, a British scientist, discovered a connection between surface pressure readings at weather stations on the eastern and western sides of the Pacific. He noted that a rise in atmospheric pressure in the eastern Pacific is usually accompanied by a fall in pressure in the western Pacific and vice versa. He called this seesaw pattern the Southern Oscillation. It was later realized that there is a close link between El Nino and the Southern Oscillation. In fact, the link between the two is so great that they are often referred to jointly as ENSO (El Nino-Southern Oscillation).

  During a typical year, the eastern Pacific has a higher pressure than the western Pacific does. This east-to-west pressure gradient enhances the trade winds over the equatorial waters. This results in a warm surface current that moves east to west at the equator. The western Pacific develops a thick, warm layer of water while the eastern Pacific has the cold Humboldt Current enhanced by upwelling. However, in other years the Southern Oscillation, for unknown reasons, swings in the opposite direction, dramatically changing the usual conditions described above,

  with pressure increasing in the western. Pacific and decreasing in the eastern Pacific. This change in the pressure gradient causes the trade winds to weaken or, in some cases, to reverse. This then causes the warm water in the western Pacific to flow eastward, increasing sea-surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific. The eastward shift signals the beginning of an El Nifio.

  Scientists try to document as many past El Nino events as possible by piecing together bits of historical evidence, such as sea-surface temperature records, daily observations of atmospheric pressure and rainfall, fisheries’ records from South America, and the writings of Spanish colonists dating back to the fifteenth century. From such historical evidence we know that El Nirtos have occurred as far back as records go. ■ It would seem that they are becoming more frequent. ■Records indicate that during the sixteenth century, an El Nino occurred on average every six years. ■ Evidence gathered over the past few decades indicates that El Ninos are now occurring on average a little over every two years. ■Even more alarming is the fact that they appear to be getting stronger. The 1997-1998 El Nifio brought copious and damaging rainfall to the southern United States, from California to Florida. Snowstorms in the northeast portion of the United States were more frequent and intense than in most years.

  1. The word "approaches" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  O nears

  O crosses

  O travels along

  O leaves

  2. According to paragraph 1, what happens when the Humboldt Current interacts with westward flowing trade winds?

  O Anchovies from southern waters are carried northward.

  O Cold water from lower depths is brought closer to the surface.

  O The Humboldt Current stops flowing toward the equator.

  O The Humboldt Current begins to flow closer to the coasts of Ecuador and Peru.

  3.Which of the following questions about the El Nino phenomenon is NOT answered in paragraph 2 ?

  O Why is the El Niflo phenomenon called El Nirto?

  O How do fishers spend their time during the El Nifio season?

  O How do coastal fish obtain enough nutrients during the El Nifio season?

  O Is the temperature of coastal waters different during the El Niflo season than it is the rest of the year?

  4. The word "exceptionally"，in the passage is closest in meaning to

  O obviously

  O unusually

  O relatively

  O occasionally

  5. Paragraph 3 supports which of the following statements about El Ninos, as that term is now used?

  O El Nifios can originate in areas other than the Pacific Ocean.

  O El Nifios can arise when warm currents last for two months or less.

  O El Nifios affect water temperatures long distances from the South American coast.

  O Multiple El Niflos can arise within a single calendar year.

  6. The phrase "is usually accompanied by” in the passage is closest in meaning to

  O usually develops before

  O usually occurs together with

  O is usually indicated by

  O is usually caused by

  7. The word "jointly" in the passage is closest in meaning to

  O together

  O therefore

  O rightfully

  O simply

  8. According to paragraph 4, what did Sir Gilbert Walker discover?

  O There is a close link between El Nifio and the Southern Oscillation.

  O Surface pressure readings all across the Pacific first rise and then fall before an El Nifio occurs.

  O Surface pressure on one side of the Pacific tends to fall when pressure rises on the opposite side.

  O The formation of an El Nirto depends on conditions all across the Pacific, not just in the waters off of South America.

  9. According to paragraph 5, what is the end result of the east-to-west pressure gradient in the eastern Pacific during a typical year?

  O The formation of a thick, warm layer of water in the western Pacific

  O The reversal of the pressure gradient to west-to-east by the end of the year

  O A change in the direction of the Southern Oscillation

  O The eastward flow of warm water from the western Pacific

  10. According to paragraph 5, all of the following changes occur in the Pacific before an El Nifio begins EXCEPT:

  O Pressure increases in the western Pacific and decreases in the eastern Pacific.

  O The trade winds decrease in intensity or reverse in the direction.

  O Surface temperatures increase in the central and eastern Pacific.

  O Ocean currents speed up as they move eastward.

  11. What can be inferred about El Ninos from the historical evidence mentioned in paragraph 6 ?

  O They have often brought damaging weather to parts of the United States.

  O They have been occurring since at least the fifteenth century.

  O They occurred less frequently in the sixteenth century than in the fifteenth.

  O They have had stronger weather effects on the United States in recent decades than on other locations.

  12. Why does the author include the information that in 1997-1998 "Snowstorms in the northeast portion of the United States were more frequent and intense than in most years"?

  O To provide evidence supporting the claim that El Nifios are getting stronger

  O To explain why the southern United States experienced copious and damaging rainfall in 1997-1998

  O To show that traditional methods are not adequate for documenting the effects of El Niftos

  O To identify a consequence of the fact that El Niflos are now occurring a little over once every two years

  13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.

  There is clear support for this view in the available documents.

  Where would the sentence best fit? Click on a square [■] to add the sentence to the passage.

  14. Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.

  Drag your answer choices to the spaces where they belong To remove an answer choice, click on it.

  To review the passage, click VIEW TEXT

  As it is currently used, the term El Nirio refers to a strong and lengthy disruption to the normal pattern of ocean currents, water temperatures, and winds in the Pacific.

  Answer Choices

  An El Nino typically begins when the Humboldt Current causes upwelling as it travels toward the equator along the coast of Peru and Ecuador.

  El Nirlos are preceded by the reversal of the usual east-to- west pressure gradient in the Pacific, the weakening or reversal of the trade winds, and the movement of warm water eastward.

  Comparisons of historical records with recent past events show that El Ninos are becoming more frequent and stronger.

  In an El Nino, warm surface currents replace the Humboldt Current for many months, raising ocean temperatures far from the coast.

  Scientists discovered the Southern Oscillation by taking surface-pressure readings at weather stations on both sides of the Pacific.

  In recent decades, El Nifios have begun to occur north of the equator and thereby affect weather conditions in the United States.

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